1 2 Pei Y, Asif-Malik A, Canales JJ (tháng 4 năm 2016). “Trace Amines and the Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1: Pharmacology, Neurochemistry, and Clinical Implications”. Front. Neurosci. 10: 148. PMC4820462. PMID27092049. doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00148. Furthermore, evidence has accrued on the ability of TAs to modulate brain reward (i.e., the subjective experience of pleasure) and reinforcement (i.e., the strengthening of a conditioned response by a given stimulus; Greenshaw, 1984), suggesting the involvement of the TAs in the neurological adaptations underlying drug addiction, a chronic relapsing syndrome characterized by compulsive drug taking, inability to control drug intake and dysphoria when access to the drug is prevented (Koob, 2009). Consistent with its hypothesized role as endogenous amphetamine, β-PEA was shown to possess reinforcing properties, a defining feature that underlies the abuse liability of amphetamine and other psychomotor stimulants. β-PEA was also as effective as amphetamine in its ability to produce conditioned place preference (i.e., the process by which an organism learns an association between drug effects and a particular place or context) in rats (Gilbert and Cooper, 1983) and was readily self-administered by dogs that had a stable history (i.e., consisting of early acquisition and later maintenance) of amphetamine or cocaine self-administration (Risner and Jones, 1977; Shannon and Thompson, 1984). In another study, high concentrations of β-PEA dose-dependently maintained responding in monkeys that were previously trained to self-administer cocaine, and pretreatment with a MAO-B inhibitor, which delayed β-PEA deactivation, further increased response rates (Bergman et al., 2001).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lindemann L, Hoener MC (2005). “A renaissance in trace amines inspired by a novel GPCR family”. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 26 (5): 274–281. PMID15860375. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2005.03.007. The pharmacology of TAs might also contribute to a molecular understanding of the well-recognized antidepressant effect of physical exercise [51]. In addition to the various beneficial effects for brain function mainly attributed to an upregulation of peptide growth factors [52,53], exercise induces a rapidly enhanced excretion of the main β-PEA metabolite β-phenylacetic acid (b-PAA) by on average 77%, compared with resting control subjects [54], which mirrors increased β-PEA synthesis in view of its limited endogenous pool half-life of ~30 s [18,55].
1 2 3 4 5 Broadley KJ (tháng 3 năm 2010). “The vascular effects of trace amines and amphetamines”. Pharmacol. Ther. 125 (3): 363–375. PMID19948186. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.11.005. Trace amines are metabolized in the mammalian body via monoamine oxidase
1 2 3 Suzuki O, Katsumata Y, Oya M (1981). “Oxidation of beta-phenylethylamine by both types of monoamine oxidase: examination of enzymes in brain and liver mitochondria of eight species”. J. Neurochem. 36 (3): 1298–301. PMID7205271. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.1981.tb01734.x.
1 2 Kaitaniemi, S; Elovaara, H; Grön, K; Kidron, H; Liukkonen, J; Salminen, T; Salmi, M; Jalkanen, S; Elima, K (2009). “The unique substrate specificity of human AOC2, a semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase”. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 66 (16): 2743–57. PMID19588076. doi:10.1007/s00018-009-0076-5. The preferred in vitro substrates of AOC2 were found to be 2-phenylethylamine, tryptamine and p-tyramine instead of methylamine and benzylamine, the favored substrates of AOC3.
1 2 Krueger SK, Williams DE; Williams (tháng 6 năm 2005). “Mammalian flavin-containing monooxygenases: structure/function, genetic polymorphisms and role in drug metabolism”. Pharmacol. Ther. 106 (3): 357–387. PMC1828602. PMID15922018. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.01.001. The biogenic amines, phenethylamine and tyramine, are N-oxygenated by FMO to produce the N-hydroxy metabolite, followed by a rapid second oxygenation to produce the trans-oximes (Lin & Cashman, 1997a, 1997b). This stereoselective N-oxygenation to the trans-oxime is also seen in the FMO-dependent N-oxygenation of amphetamine (Cashman et al., 1999) ... Interestingly, FMO2, which very efficiently N-oxygenates N-dodecylamine, is a poor catalyst of phenethylamine N-oxygenation. The most efficient human FMO in phenethylamine N-oxygenation is FMO3, the major FMO present in adult human liver; the Km is between 90 and 200 μM (Lin & Cashman, 1997b).
1 2 Phenethylamine. United States National Library of Medicine – National Center for Biotechnology Information. Plasma Pharmacokinetics of PEA Could Be Described By 1st-Order Kinetics With Estimated T/2 of Approx 5-10 Min.
1 2 “Chemical and Physical Properties”. Phenethylamine. PubChem Compound. United States National Library of Medicine – National Center for Biotechnology Information.
↑ Smith, Terence A. (1977). “Phenethylamine and related compounds in plants”. Phytochemistry 16 (1): 9–18. doi:10.1016/0031-9422(77)83004-5.
1 2 Irsfeld M, Spadafore M, Prüß BM; Spadafore; Prüß (tháng 9 năm 2013). “β-phenylethylamine, a small molecule with a large impact”. Webmedcentral 4 (9). PMC3904499. PMID24482732. While diagnosis of ADHD is usually done by analysis of the symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), PEA was recently described as a biomarker for ADHD (Scassellati et al., 2012). This novel discovery will improve the confidence of the diagnostic efforts, possibly leading to reduced misdiagnosis and overmedication. Specifically, the urinary output of PEA was lower in a population of children suffering from ADHD, as compared to the healthy control population, an observation that was paralleled by reduced PEA levels in ADHD individuals (Baker et al., 1991; Kusaga, 2002). In a consecutive study (Kusaga et al., 2002), those of the children suffering with ADHD were treated with methylphenidate, also known as Ritalin. Patients whose symptoms improved in response to treatment with methylphenidate had a significantly higher PEA level than patients who did not experience such an improvement in their condition (Kusaga et al., 2002).
↑ Lynnes T, Horne SM, Prüß BM (2014). “ß-Phenylethylamine as a novel nutrient treatment to reduce bacterial contamination due to Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef meat”. Meat Sci. 96 (1): 165–71. PMID23896151. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.06.030. Acetoacetic acid (AAA) and ß-phenylethylamine (PEA) performed best in this experiment. On beef meat pieces, PEA reduced the bacterial cell count by 90% after incubation of the PEA-treated and E. coli-contaminated meat pieces at 10°C for one week.
↑ Offermanns, S; Rosenthal, W, eds. (2008). Encyclopedia of Molecular Pharmacology (2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer. pp. 1219–1222. ISBN978-3540389163.
1 2 3 4 Gozal EA, O'Neill BE, Sawchuk MA, Zhu H, Halder M, Chou CC, Hochman S (2014). "Anatomical and functional evidence for trace amines as unique modulators of locomotor function in the mammalian spinal cord". Front Neural Circuits. 8: 134. doi:10.3389/fncir.2014.00134. PMC4224135. PMID25426030. TAAR1 activity appears to depress monoamine transport and limit dopaminergic and serotonergic neuronal firing rates via interactions with presynaptic D2 and 5-HT1A autoreceptors, respectively (Wolinsky et al., 2007; Lindemann et al., 2008; Xie and Miller, 2008; Xie et al., 2008; Bradaia et al., 2009; Revel et al., 2011; Leo et al., 2014). ... TAAR1 and TAAR4 labeling in all neurons appeared intracellular, consistent with previous reported results for TAAR1 (Miller, 2011). A cytoplasmic location of ligand and receptor (e.g., tyramine and TAAR1) supports intracellular activation of signal transduction pathways, as suggested previously (Miller, 2011). ... Additionally, once transported intracellularly, they could act on presynaptic TAARs to alter basal activity (Miller, 2011). ... As reported for TAAR1 in HEK cells (Bunzow et al., 2001; Miller, 2011), we observed cytoplasmic labeling for TAAR1 and TAAR4, both of which are activated by the TAs (Borowsky et al., 2001). A cytoplasmic location of the ligand and the receptor (e.g., tyramine and TAAR1) would support intracellular activation of signal transduction pathways (Miller, 2011). Such a co-localization would not require release from vesicles and could explain why the TAs do not appear to be found there (Berry, 2004; Burchett and Hicks, 2006).
↑ Deepak N, Sara T, Andrew H, Darrell DM, Glen BB (2011). “Trace amines and their relevance to psychiatry and neurology: a brief overview”. Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology 21 (1): 73–79. doi:10.5350/KPB-BCP201121113. Interestingly, PEA can also stimulate acetylcholine release through activation of glutamatergic signaling pathways (21), and PEA and p-TA have been reported to depress GABAB receptor-mediated responses in dopaminergic neurons (22,23). Although PEA, T and p-TA have been reported to be present in synaptosomes (nerve ending preparations isolated during homogenization and centrifugation of brain tissue) (24), research with reserpine and neurotoxins suggests that m- and p-TA may be stored in vesicles while PEA and T are not (25–27). ... the antidepressant effects of exercise have been suggested to be due to an elevation of PEA (57). l-Deprenyl (selegiline), a selective inhibitor of MAO-B, is used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease and produces a marked increase in brain levels of PEA relative to other amines (20,58). ... Interestingly, the gene for aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC), the major enzyme involved in the synthesis of the trace amines, is located in the same region of chromosome 7 that has been proposed as a susceptibility locus for ADHD (50)
↑ Khan MZ, Nawaz W (tháng 10 năm 2016). “The emerging roles of human trace amines and human trace amine-associated receptors (hTAARs) in central nervous system”. Biomed. Pharmacother. 83: 439–449. PMID27424325. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2016.07.002.
